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Astronomy.
Astronomy
Astronomy, which etymologically means "law of the stars", (from Greek: αστρονομία = άστρον + νόμος) is a science involving the observation and explanation of events occurring outside Earth and its atmosphere. It studies the origins, evolution, physical and chemical properties of objects that can be observed in the sky (and are outside the earth), as well as the processes involving them.
Lunar astronomy: the large crater is Daedalus, photographed by the crew of Apollo 11 as they circled the Moon in 1969. Located near the center of the far side of Earth's Moon, its diameter is about 93 kilometers (58 miles).
Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs still play an active role, especially in the discovery and monitoring of transient phenomena. Astronomy is not to be confused with astrology, a pseudoscience which attempts to predict a person's destiny by tracking the paths of astronomical objects. Although the two fields share a common origin, they are quite different; astronomers embrace the scientific method, while astrologers do not.
Table of contents showTocToggle("show","hide")
1 Divisions of astronomy
1.1 By subject or problem addressed
1.2 Ways of obtaining information
2 Short history
3 See also
4 Astronomy tools
5 External links
5.1 Organizations
5.2 References: Formulas and Constants
5.3 External Links
Divisions of astronomy
In its earliest days, going back to ancient Greece and other ancient civilizations, astronomy consisted largely of astrometry, measuring positions of stars and planets in the sky. Later, the work of Kepler and Newton paved the way for celestial mechanics, mathematically predicting the motions of celestial bodies interacting under gravity, and solar system objects in particular. Much of the effort in these two areas, once done largely by hand, is highly automated nowadays, to the extent that they are rarely considered as independent disciplines anymore. Motions and positions of objects are now easily known, and modern astronomy concerns itself much more with trying to observe and understand the actual physical nature of celestial objects—what makes them "tick".
Ever since the twentieth century the field of professional astronomy has tended to split into observational astronomy and theoretical astrophysics. Although most astronomers incorporate elements of both into their research, because of the different skills involved, most professional astronomers tend to specialize in one or the other. Observational astronomy is concerned mostly with getting data which involves building and maintaining instruments and processing the resulting data; this branch is at times referred to as "astrometry" or simply as "astronomy." Theoretical astrophysics is considered mainly with figuring out the observational implications of different models, and involves working with computer or analytic models.
The fields of study are also categorized in another two ways: by subject, usually according to the region of space (e.g. Galactic astronomy) or problems addressed (such as star formation or cosmology); or by the way used for obtaining information.
By subject or problem addressed
Planetary astronomy, or Planetary Sciences: a Martian dust devil. Photographed by Mars Global Surveyor, the long dark streak is formed by a moving swirling column of Martian atmosphere (with similarities to a terrestrial tornado). The dust devil itself (the black spot) is climbing the crater wall. The streaks on the right are sand dunes on the crater floor.
- Astrobiology: the study of the advent and evolution of biological systems in the universe.
- Astrometry: the study of the position of objects in the sky and their changes of position. Defines the system of coordinates used and the kinematics of objects in our galaxy.
- Cosmology: the study of the universe as a whole and its evolution.
- Galactic astronomy: the study of the structure and components of our galaxy and of other galaxies.
- Extragalactic astronomy: the study of objects (mainly galaxies) outside our galaxy.
- Galaxy formation and evolution: the study of the formation of the galaxies, and their evolution.
- Planetary Sciences: the study of the planets of the solar system.
- Stellar astronomy: the study of the stars.
- Stellar evolution: the study of the evolution of stars from their formation to their end as a stellar remnant.
- Star formation: the study of the condition and processes that led to the formation of stars in the interior of gas clouds, and the process of formation itself.
Also, there are other disciplines that may be considered part of astronomy:
See list of astronomical topics for a more exhaustive list of astronomy-related pages.
Ways of obtaining information
In astronomy, information is mainly received from the detection and analysis of electromagnetic radiation,
photons, but information is also carried by cosmic rays, neutrinos, meteors, and, in the near future, gravitational waves (see LIGO and LISA).
A traditional division of astronomy is given by the region of the electromagnetic spectrum observed:
Extragalactic astronomy: gravitational lensing. This image shows several blue, loop-shaped objects that are multiple images of the same galaxy. They have been duplicated by the gravitational lens effect of the cluster of yellow galaxies near the photograph's center. The lens is produced by the cluster's gravitational field that bends light to magnify and distort the image of a more distant object.
Optical and radio astronomy can be performed with ground-based observatories, because the atmosphere is transparent at those wavelengths. Infrared light is heavily absorbed by
water vapor, so infrared observatories have to be located in high, dry places or in space.
The atmosphere is opaque at the wavelengths used by X-ray astronomy, gamma-ray astronomy, UV astronomy and, except for a few wavelength "windows", Far infrared astronomy , so observations
can be carried out only from balloons or space observatories.
Short history
In the early part of its history, astronomy involved only the observation and predictions of the motions of the objects in the sky that could be seen with the naked eye. The Rigveda refers to the 27 constellations associated with the motions of the sun and also the 12 zodiacal divisions of the sky. The ancient Greeks made important contributions to astronomy, among them the definition of the magnitude system. The Bible contains a number of statements on the position of the earth in the universe and the nature of the stars and planets, most of which are poetic rather than literal; see Biblical cosmology. In 500 AD, Aryabhata presented a mathematical system that took the earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the sun.
The study of astronomy almost stopped during the middle ages, except for the work of Arabic astronomers. The late 9th century Islamic astronomer al-Farghani (Abu'l-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathir al-Farghani) wrote extensively on the motion of celestial bodies. His work were translated into Latin in the 12th century. In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic. In Persia, Omar Khayyam (Ghiyath al-Din Abu'l-Fath Umar ibn Ibrahim al-Nisaburi al-Khayyami) compiled many astronomical tables and performed a reformation of the calendar which was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian.
During the Renaissance Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the Solar System. His work was defended, expanded upon, and corrected by Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler. Kepler was the first to devise a system which described correctly the details of the motion of the planets with the Sun at the center. However, Kepler did not understand the reasons behind the laws he wrote down. It was left to Newton's invention of celestial dynamics and his law of gravitation to finally explain the motions of the planets.
Stars were found to be far away objects. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proved that they were similar to our own sun, but with a wide range of temperatures, masses and sizes. The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. Cosmology made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the big bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's Law and cosmological abundances of elements.
For a more detailed history of astronomy, see the history of astronomy.
Stellar astronomy, Stellar Evolution: The Ant planetary nebula. The ejection of gas, from the dying star at the center, has symmetrical patterns unlike the chaotic patterns expected from an ordinary explosion.
See also
Astronomy tools
External links
Organizations
References: Formulas and Constants
External Links
This article is adapted from from Wikipedia All Wikipedia article text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License
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The Planets in Our Solar System (Let's-Read-and-Find-Out Science, Stage 2) by Franklyn M. Branley
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The Backyard Astronomer's Guide by Terence Dickinson
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A Beginner's Guide to Constructing the Universe: Mathematical Archetypes of Nature, Art, and Science by Michael S. Schneider
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The Stars : A New Way to See Them by H. A. Rey
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